mRNA-LNP vaccine-induced CD8+ T-cells protect mice from lethal SARS-CoV-2 infection in the absence of specific antibodies.

The role of CD8+ T-cells in SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis or mRNA-LNP vaccine-induced protection from lethal COVID-19 is unclear. Using mouse-adapted SARS-CoV-2 virus (MA30) in C57BL/6 mice, we show that CD8+ T-cells are unnecessary for the intrinsic resistance of female or the susceptibility of male mice to lethal SARS-CoV-2 infection. Also, mice immunized with a di-proline prefusion-stabilized full-length SARS-CoV-2 Spike (S-2P) mRNA-LNP vaccine, which induces Spike-specific antibodies and CD8+ T-cells specific for the Spike-derived VNFNFNGL peptide, are protected from SARS-CoV-2 infection-induced lethality and weight loss, while mice vaccinated with mRNA-LNPs encoding only VNFNFNGL are protected from lethality but not weight loss. CD8+ T-cell depletion ablates protection in VNFNFNGL but not in S-2P mRNA-LNP-vaccinated mice. Therefore, mRNA-LNP vaccine-induced CD8+ T-cells are dispensable when protective antibodies are present but essential for survival in their absence. Hence, vaccine-induced CD8+ T-cells may be critical to protect against SARS-CoV-2 variants that mutate epitopes targeted by protective antibodies.

Dietary L-Tryptophan consumption determines the number of colonic regulatory T cells and susceptibility to colitis via GPR15.

Environmental factors are the major contributor to the onset of immunological disorders such as ulcerative colitis. However, their identities remain unclear. Here, we discover that the amount of consumed L-Tryptophan (L-Trp), a ubiquitous dietary component, determines the transcription level of the colonic T cell homing receptor, GPR15, hence affecting the number of colonic FOXP3+ regulatory T (Treg) cells and local immune homeostasis. Ingested L-Trp is converted by host IDO1/2 enzymes, but not by gut microbiota, to compounds that induce GPR15 transcription preferentially in Treg cells via the aryl hydrocarbon receptor. Consequently, two weeks of dietary L-Trp supplementation nearly double the colonic GPR15+ Treg cells via GPR15-mediated homing and substantially reduce the future risk of colitis. In addition, humans consume 3-4 times less L-Trp per kilogram of body weight and have fewer colonic GPR15+ Treg cells than mice. Thus, we uncover a microbiota-independent mechanism linking dietary L-Trp and colonic Treg cells, that may have therapeutic potential.

Multiple and Consecutive Genome Editing Using i-GONAD and Breeding Enrichment Facilitates the Production of Genetically Modified Mice.

Genetically modified (GM) mice are essential tools in biomedical research. Traditional methods for generating GM mice are expensive and require specialized personnel and equipment. The use of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) coupled with improved-Genome editing via Oviductal Nucleic Acids Delivery (i-GONAD) has highly increased the feasibility of producing GM mice in research laboratories. However, genetic modification in inbred mouse strains of interest such as C57BL/6 (B6) is still challenging because of their low fertility and embryo fragility. We have successfully generated multiple novel GM mouse strains in the B6 background while attempting to optimize i-GONAD. We found that i-GONAD reduced the litter size in superovulated pregnant females but did not impact pregnancy rates. Natural mating or low-hormone dose did not increase the low fertility rate observed in superovulated B6 females. However, diet enrichment had a positive effect on pregnancy success. We also optimized breeding conditions to increase the survival of small litters by co-housing i-GONAD-treated pregnant B6 females with synchronized pregnant FVB/NJ companion mothers. Thus, GM mice generation was increased by an enriched diet and shared pup rearing with highly fertile females such as FVB/NJ. In the present study, we generated 16 GM mice using a CRISPR/Cas system to target individual and multiple loci simultaneously or consecutively. We also compared homology-directed repair efficiency using different methods for LoxP insertion for conditional knockout mouse production. We found that a two-step serial LoxP insertion, in which each LoxP sequence was inserted individually in different i-GONAD procedures, was a low-risk high-efficiency method for generating floxed mice.

Design and preclinical evaluation of a universal SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccine.

Because of the rapid mutations of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), an effective vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 variants is needed to prevent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). T cells, in addition to neutralizing antibodies, are an important component of naturally acquired protective immunity, and a number of studies have shown that T cells induced by natural infection or vaccination contribute significantly to protection against several viral infections including SARS-CoV-2. However, it has never been tested whether a T cell-inducing vaccine can provide significant protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection in the absence of preexisting antibodies. In this study, we designed and evaluated lipid nanoparticle (LNP) formulated mRNA vaccines that induce only T cell responses or both T cell and neutralizing antibody responses by using two mRNAs. One mRNA encodes SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Spike protein in prefusion conformation for induction of neutralizing antibodies. The other mRNA encodes over one hundred T cell epitopes (multi-T cell epitope or MTE) derived from non-Spike but conserved regions of the SARS-CoV-2. We show immunization with MTE mRNA alone protected mice from lethal challenge with the SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant or a mouse-adapted virus MA30. Immunization with both mRNAs induced the best protection with the lowest viral titer in the lung. These results demonstrate that induction of T cell responses, in the absence of preexisting antibodies, is sufficient to confer protection against severe disease, and that a vaccine containing mRNAs encoding both the Spike and MTE could be further developed as a universal SARS-CoV-2 vaccine.

Resistance To Poxvirus Lethality Does Not Require the Necroptosis Proteins RIPK3 or MLKL.

Receptor-interacting protein kinase 3 (RIPK3) and mixed lineage kinase domain-like pseudokinase (MLKL) are proteins that are critical for necroptosis, a mechanism of programmed cell death that is both activated when apoptosis is inhibited and thought to be antiviral. Here, we investigated the role of RIPK3 and MLKL in controlling the Orthopoxvirus ectromelia virus (ECTV), a natural pathogen of the mouse. We found that C57BL/6 (B6) mice deficient in RIPK3 (Ripk3-/-) or MLKL (Mlkl-/-) were as susceptible as wild-type (WT) B6 mice to ECTV lethality after low-dose intraperitoneal infection and were as resistant as WT B6 mice after ECTV infection through the natural footpad route. Additionally, after footpad infection, Mlkl-/- mice, but not Ripk3-/- mice, endured lower viral titers than WT mice in the draining lymph node (dLN) at three days postinfection and in the spleen or in the liver at seven days postinfection. Despite the improved viral control, Mlkl-/- mice did not differ from WT mice in the expression of interferons or interferon-stimulated genes or in the recruitment of natural killer (NK) cells and inflammatory monocytes (iMOs) to the dLN. Additionally, the CD8 T-cell responses in Mlkl-/- and WT mice were similar, even though in the dLNs of Mlkl-/- mice, professional antigen-presenting cells were more heavily infected. Finally, the histopathology in the livers of Mlkl-/- and WT mice at 7 dpi did not differ. Thus, the mechanism of the increased virus control by Mlkl-/- mice remains to be defined. IMPORTANCE The molecules RIPK3 and MLKL are required for necroptotic cell death, which is widely thought of as an antiviral mechanism. Here we show that C57BL/6 (B6) mice deficient in RIPK3 or MLKL are as susceptible as WT B6 mice to ECTV lethality after a low-dose intraperitoneal infection and are as resistant as WT B6 mice after ECTV infection through the natural footpad route. Mice deficient in MLKL are more efficient than WT mice at controlling virus loads in various organs. This improved viral control is not due to enhanced interferon, natural killer cell, or CD8 T-cell responses. Overall, the data indicate that deficiencies in the molecules that are critical to necroptosis do not necessarily result in worse outcomes following viral infection and may improve virus control.

Interferon partly dictates a divergent transcriptional response in poxvirus-infected and bystander inflammatory monocytes.

Inflammatory monocytes (iMOs) and B cells are the main targets of the poxvirus ectromelia virus (ECTV) in the lymph nodes of mice and play distinct roles in surviving the infection. Infected and bystander iMOs control ECTV's systemic spread, preventing early death, while B cells make antibodies that eliminate ECTV. Our work demonstrates that within an infected animal that survives ECTV infection, intrinsic and bystander infection of iMOs and B cells differentially control the transcription of genes important for immune cell function and, perhaps, cell identity. Bystander cells upregulate metabolism, antigen presentation, and interferon-stimulated genes. Infected cells downregulate many cell-type-specific genes and upregulate transcripts typical of non-immune cells. Bystander (Bys) and infected (Inf) iMOs non-redundantly contribute to the cytokine milieu and the interferon response. Furthermore, we uncover how type I interferon (IFN-I) or IFN-γ signaling differentially regulates immune pathways in Inf and Bys iMOs and that, at steady state, IFN-I primes iMOs for rapid IFN-I production and antigen presentation.

Mechanisms of Antiviral Cytotoxic CD4 T Cell Differentiation.

Cytotoxic CD4 T lymphocytes (CD4-CTL) are important in antiviral immunity. For example, we have previously shown that in mice, CD4-CTL are important to control ectromelia virus (ECTV) infection. How viral infections induce CD4-CTL responses remains incompletely understood. We demonstrate here that not only ECTV but also vaccinia virus and lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus induce CD4-CTL, though the response to ECTV is stronger. Using ECTV, we also demonstrate that in contrast to CD8-CTL, CD4-CTL differentiation requires constant virus replication and ceases once the virus is controlled. We also show that major histocompatibility complex class II molecules on CD11c+ cells are required for CD4-CTL differentiation and for mousepox resistance. Transcriptional analysis indicated that antiviral CD4-CTL and noncytolytic T helper 1 (Th1) CD4 T cells have similar transcriptional profiles, suggesting that CD4-CTL are terminally differentiated classical Th1 cells. Interestingly, CD4-CTL and classical Th1 cells expressed similar mRNA levels of the transcription factors ThPOK and GATA-3, necessary for CD4 T cell linage commitment, and Runx3, required for CD8 T cell development and effector function. However, at the protein level, CD4-CTL had higher levels of the three transcription factors, suggesting that further posttranscriptional regulation is required for CD4-CTL differentiation. Finally, CRISPR/Cas9-mediated deletion of Runx3 in CD4 T cells inhibited CD4-CTL but not classical Th1 cell differentiation in response to ECTV infection. These results further our understanding of the mechanisms of CD4-CTL differentiation during viral infection and the role of posttranscriptionally regulated Runx3 in this process. IMPORTANCE While it is well established that cytotoxic CD4 T cells (CD4-CTLs) directly contribute to viral clearance, it remains unclear how CD4-CTL are induced. We now show that CD4-CTLs require sustained antigen presentation and are induced by CD11c-expressing antigen-presenting cells. Moreover, we show that CD4-CTLs are derived from the terminal differentiation of classical T helper 1 (Th1) subset of CD4 cells. Compared to Th1 cells, CD4-CTLs upregulate protein levels of the transcription factors ThPOK, Runx3, and GATA-3 posttranscriptionally. Deletion of Runx3 in differentiated CD4 T cells prevents induction of CD4-CTLs but not classical Th1 cells. These results advance our knowledge of how CD4-CTLs are induced during viral infection.

IFN-ß Acts on Monocytes to Ameliorate CNS Autoimmunity by Inhibiting Proinflammatory Cross-Talk Between Monocytes and Th Cells.

IFN-ß has been the treatment for multiple sclerosis (MS) for almost three decades, but understanding the mechanisms underlying its beneficial effects remains incomplete. We have shown that MS patients have increased numbers of GM-CSF+ Th cells in circulation, and that IFN-ß therapy reduces their numbers. GM-CSF expression by myelin-specific Th cells is essential for the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS. These findings suggested that IFN-ß therapy may function via suppression of GM-CSF production by Th cells. In the current study, we elucidated a feedback loop between monocytes and Th cells that amplifies autoimmune neuroinflammation, and found that IFN-ß therapy ameliorates central nervous system (CNS) autoimmunity by inhibiting this proinflammatory loop. IFN-ß suppressed GM-CSF production in Th cells indirectly by acting on monocytes, and IFN-ß signaling in monocytes was required for EAE suppression. IFN-ß increased IL-10 expression by monocytes, and IL-10 was required for the suppressive effects of IFN-ß. IFN-ß treatment suppressed IL-1ß expression by monocytes in the CNS of mice with EAE. GM-CSF from Th cells induced IL-1ß production by monocytes, and, in a positive feedback loop, IL-1ß augmented GM-CSF production by Th cells. In addition to GM-CSF, TNF and FASL expression by Th cells was also necessary for IL-1ß production by monocyte. IFN-ß inhibited GM-CSF, TNF, and FASL expression by Th cells to suppress IL-1ß secretion by monocytes. Overall, our study describes a positive feedback loop involving several Th cell- and monocyte-derived molecules, and IFN-ß actions on monocytes disrupting this proinflammatory loop.

Resistance to lethal ectromelia virus infection requires Type I interferon receptor in natural killer cells and monocytes but not in adaptive immune or parenchymal cells.

Type I interferons (IFN-I) are antiviral cytokines that signal through the ubiquitous IFN-I receptor (IFNAR). Following footpad infection with ectromelia virus (ECTV), a mouse-specific pathogen, C57BL/6 (B6) mice survive without disease, while B6 mice broadly deficient in IFNAR succumb rapidly. We now show that for survival to ECTV, only hematopoietic cells require IFNAR expression. Survival to ECTV specifically requires IFNAR in both natural killer (NK) cells and monocytes. However, intrinsic IFNAR signaling is not essential for adaptive immune cell responses or to directly protect non-hematopoietic cells such as hepatocytes, which are principal ECTV targets. Mechanistically, IFNAR-deficient NK cells have reduced cytolytic function, while lack of IFNAR in monocytes dampens IFN-I production and hastens virus dissemination. Thus, during a pathogenic viral infection, IFN-I coordinates innate immunity by stimulating monocytes in a positive feedback loop and by inducing NK cell cytolytic function.

Lipid-nanoparticle-encapsulated mRNA vaccines induce protective memory CD8 T cells against a lethal viral infection.

It is well established that memory CD8 T cells protect susceptible strains of mice from mousepox, a lethal viral disease caused by ectromelia virus (ECTV), the murine counterpart to human variola virus. While mRNA vaccines induce protective antibody (Ab) responses, it is unknown whether they also induce protective memory CD8 T cells. We now show that immunization with different doses of unmodified or N(1)-methylpseudouridine-modified mRNA (modified mRNA) in lipid nanoparticles (LNP) encoding the ECTV gene EVM158 induced similarly strong CD8 T cell responses to the epitope TSYKFESV, albeit unmodified mRNA-LNP had adverse effects at the inoculation site. A single immunization with 10 µg modified mRNA-LNP protected most susceptible mice from mousepox, and booster vaccination increased the memory CD8 T cell pool, providing full protection. Moreover, modified mRNA-LNP encoding TSYKFESV appended to green fluorescent protein (GFP) protected against wild-type ECTV infection while lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus glycoprotein (GP) modified mRNA-LNP protected against ECTV expressing GP epitopes. Thus, modified mRNA-LNP can be used to create protective CD8 T cell-based vaccines against viral infections.

Viral infection modulates Qa-1b in infected and bystander cells to properly direct NK cell killing.

Natural killer (NK) cell activation depends on the signaling balance of activating and inhibitory receptors. CD94 forms inhibitory receptors with NKG2A and activating receptors with NKG2E or NKG2C. We previously demonstrated that CD94-NKG2 on NK cells and its ligand Qa-1b are important for the resistance of C57BL/6 mice to lethal ectromelia virus (ECTV) infection. We now show that NKG2C or NKG2E deficiency does not increase susceptibility to lethal ECTV infection, but overexpression of Qa-1b in infected cells does. We also demonstrate that Qa-1b is down-regulated in infected and up-regulated in bystander inflammatory monocytes and B cells. Moreover, NK cells activated by ECTV infection kill Qa-1b-deficient cells in vitro and in vivo. Thus, during viral infection, recognition of Qa-1b by activating CD94/NKG2 receptors is not critical. Instead, the levels of Qa-1b expression are down-regulated in infected cells but increased in some bystander immune cells to respectively promote or inhibit their killing by activated NK cells.

Declined miR-181a-5p expression is associated with impaired natural killer cell development and function with aging.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulate gene expression and thereby influence cell development and function. Numerous studies have shown the significant roles of miRNAs in regulating immune cells including natural killer (NK) cells. However, little is known about the role of miRNAs in NK cells with aging. We previously demonstrated that the aged C57BL/6 mice have significantly decreased proportion of mature (CD27- CD11b+ ) NK cells compared with young mice, indicating impaired maturation of NK cells with aging. Here, we performed deep sequencing of CD27+ NK cells from young and aged mice. Profiling of the miRNome (global miRNA expression levels) revealed that 49 miRNAs displayed a twofold or greater difference in expression between young and aged NK cells. Among these, 30 miRNAs were upregulated and 19 miRNAs were downregulated in the aged NK cells. We found that the expression level of miR-l8la-5p was increased with the maturation of NK cells, and significantly decreased in NK cells from the aged mice. Knockdown of miR-181a-5p inhibited NK cell development in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, miR-181a-5p is highly conserved in mice and human. MiR-181a-5p promoted the production of IFN-γ and cytotoxicity in stimulated NK cells from both mice and human. Importantly, miR-181a-5p level markedly decreased in NK cells from PBMC of elderly people. Thus, our results demonstrated that the miRNAs profiles in NK cells change with aging, the decreased level of miR-181a-5p contributes to the defective NK cell development and function with aging. This opens new strategies to preserve or restore NK cell function in the elderly.

Defective early innate immune response to ectromelia virus in the draining lymph nodes of aged mice due to impaired dendritic cell accumulation.

It is known that aging decreases natural resistance to viral diseases due to dysfunctional innate and adaptive immune responses, but the nature of these dysfunctions, particularly in regard to innate immunity, is not well understood. We have previously shown that C57BL/6J (B6) mice lose their natural resistance to footpad infection with ectromelia virus (ECTV) due to impaired maturation and recruitment of natural killer (NK) cells to the draining popliteal lymph node (dLN). More recently, we have also shown that in young B6 mice infected with ECTV, the recruitment of NK cells is dependent on a complex cascade whereby migratory dendritic cells (mDCs) traffic from the skin to the dLN, where they produce CCL2 and CCL7 to recruit inflammatory monocytes (iMOs). In the dLN, mDCs also upregulate NKG2D ligands to induce interferon gamma (IFN-γ) expression by group 1 innate lymphoid cells (G1-ILCs), mostly NK in cells but also some ILC1. In response to the IFN-γ, the incoming uninfected iMOs secret CXCL9 to recruit the critical NK cells. Here, we show that in aged B6 mice, the trafficking of mDCs to the dLN in response to ECTV is decreased, resulting in impaired IFN-γ expression by G1-ILCs, reduced accumulation of iMOs, and attenuated CXCL9 production by iMOs, which likely contributes to decrease in NK cell recruitment. Together, these data indicate that defects in the mDC response to viral infection during aging result in a reduced innate immune response in the dLN and contribute to increased susceptibility to viral disease in the aged.

STING Sensing of Murine Cytomegalovirus Alters the Tumor Microenvironment to Promote Antitumor Immunity.

CMV has been proposed to play a role in cancer progression and invasiveness. However, CMV has been increasingly studied as a cancer vaccine vector, and multiple groups, including ours, have reported that the virus can drive antitumor immunity in certain models. Our previous work revealed that intratumoral injections of wild-type murine CMV (MCMV) into B16-F0 melanomas caused tumor growth delay in part by using a viral chemokine to recruit macrophages that were subsequently infected. We now show that MCMV acts as a STING agonist in the tumor. MCMV infection of tumors in STING-deficient mice resulted in normal recruitment of macrophages to the tumor, but poor recruitment of CD8+ T cells, reduced production of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, and no delay in tumor growth. In vitro, expression of type I IFN was dependent on both STING and the type I IFNR. Moreover, type I IFN alone was sufficient to induce cytokine and chemokine production by macrophages and B16 tumor cells, suggesting that the major role for STING activation was to produce type I IFN. Critically, viral infection of wild-type macrophages alone was sufficient to restore tumor growth delay in STING-deficient animals. Overall, these data show that MCMV infection and sensing in tumor-associated macrophages through STING signaling is sufficient to promote antitumor immune responses in the B16-F0 melanoma model.

α2ß1 Integrin Is Required for Optimal NK Cell Proliferation during Viral Infection but Not for Acquisition of Effector Functions or NK Cell-Mediated Virus Control.

NK cells play an important role in antiviral resistance. The integrin α2, which dimerizes with integrin ß1, distinguishes NK cells from innate lymphoid cells 1 and other leukocytes. Despite its use as an NK cell marker, little is known about the role of α2ß1 in NK cell biology. In this study, we show that in mice α2ß1 deficiency does not alter the balance of NK cell/ innate lymphoid cell 1 generation and slightly decreases the number of NK cells in the bone marrow and spleen without affecting NK cell maturation. NK cells deficient in α2ß1 had no impairment at entering or distributing within the draining lymph node of ectromelia virus (ECTV)-infected mice or at becoming effectors but proliferated poorly in response to ECTV and did not increase in numbers following infection with mouse CMV (MCMV). Still, α2ß1-deficient NK cells efficiently protected from lethal mousepox and controlled MCMV titers in the spleen. Thus, α2ß1 is required for optimal NK cell proliferation but is dispensable for protection against ECTV and MCMV, two well-established models of viral infection in which NK cells are known to be important.

Loss of Resistance to Mousepox during Chronic Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Infection Is Associated with Impaired T-Cell Responses and Can Be Rescued by Immunization.

It is well established that chronic viral infections can cause immune suppression, resulting in increased susceptibility to other infectious diseases. However, the effects of chronic viral infection on T-cell responses and vaccination against highly pathogenic viruses are not well understood. We have recently shown that C57BL/6 (B6) mice lose their natural resistance to wild-type (WT) ectromelia virus (ECTV) when chronically infected with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) clone 13 (CL13). Here we compared the T-cell response to ECTV in previously immunologically naive mice that were chronically infected with CL13 or that were convalescent from acute infection with the Armstrong (Arm) strain of LCMV. Our results show that mice that were chronically infected with CL13 but not those that had recovered from Arm infection have highly defective ECTV-specific CD8+ and CD4+ T-cell responses to WT ECTV. These defects are at least partly due to the chronic infection environment. In contrast to mice infected with WT ECTV, mice chronically infected with CL13 survived without signs of disease when infected with ECTV-Δ036, a mutant ECTV strain that is highly attenuated. Strikingly, mice chronically infected with CL13 mounted a strong CD8+ T-cell response to ECTV-Δ036 and survived without signs of disease after a subsequent challenge with WT ECTV. Our work suggests that enhanced susceptibility to acute viral infections in chronically infected individuals can be partly due to poor T-cell responses but that sufficient T-cell function can be recovered and resistance to acute infection can be restored by immunization with highly attenuated vaccines.IMPORTANCE Chronic viral infections may result in immunosuppression and enhanced susceptibility to infections with other pathogens. For example, we have recently shown that mice chronically infected with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) clone 13 (CL13) are highly susceptible to mousepox, a disease that is caused by ectromelia virus and that is the mouse homolog of human smallpox. Here we show chronic CL13 infection severely disrupts the expansion, proliferation, activation, and cytotoxicity of T cells in response due at least in part to the suppressive effects of the chronic infection milieu. Notably, despite this profound immunodeficiency, mice chronically infected with CL13 could be protected by vaccination with a highly attenuated variant of ECTV. These results demonstrate that protective vaccination of immunosuppressed individuals is possible, provided that proper immunization tools are used.

Chronic Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Infection Causes Susceptibility to Mousepox and Impairs Natural Killer Cell Maturation and Function.

Chronic viral infections. like those of humans with cytomegalovirus, human immunodeficiency virus (even when under antiretroviral therapy), and hepatitis C virus or those of mice with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) clone 13 (CL13), result in immune dysfunction that predisposes the host to severe infections with unrelated pathogens. It is known that C57BL/6 (B6) mice are resistant to mousepox, a lethal disease caused by the orthopoxvirus ectromelia virus (ECTV), and that this resistance requires natural killer (NK) cells and other immune cells. We show that most B6 mice chronically infected with CL13 succumb to mousepox but that most of those that recovered from acute infection with the LCMV Armstrong (Arm) strain survive. We also show that B6 mice chronically infected with CL13 and those that recovered from Arm infection have a reduced frequency and a reduced number of NK cells. However, at steady state, NK cells in mice that have recovered from Arm infection mature normally and, in response to ECTV, get activated, become more mature, proliferate, and increase their cytotoxicity in vivo Conversely, in mice chronically infected with CL13, NK cells are immature and residually activated, and following ECTV infection, they do not mature, proliferate, or increase their cytotoxicity. Given the well-established importance of NK cells in resistance to mousepox, these data suggest that the NK cell dysfunction caused by CL13 persistence may contribute to the susceptibility of CL13-infected mice to mousepox. Whether chronic infections similarly affect NK cells in humans should be explored.IMPORTANCE Infection of adult mice with the clone 13 (CL13) strain of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) is extensively used as a model of chronic infection. In this paper, we show that mice chronically infected with CL13 succumb to challenge with ectromelia virus (ECTV; the agent of mousepox) and that natural killer (NK) cells in CL13-infected mice are reduced in numbers and have an immature and partially activated phenotype but do respond to ECTV. These data may provide additional clues why humans chronically infected with certain pathogens are less resistant to viral diseases.

Langerhans Cells Orchestrate the Protective Antiviral Innate Immune Response in the Lymph Node.

During disseminating viral infections, a swift innate immune response (IIR) in the draining lymph node (dLN) that restricts systemic viral spread is critical for optimal resistance to disease. However, it is unclear how this IIR is orchestrated. We show that after footpad infection of mice with ectromelia virus, dendritic cells (DCs) highly expressing major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC class IIhi DCs), including CD207+ epidermal Langerhans cells (LCs), CD103+CD207+ double-positive dermal DCs (DP-DCs), and CD103-CD207- double-negative dermal DCs (DN-DCs) migrate to the dLN from the skin carrying virus. MHC class IIhi DCs, predominantly LCs and DP-DCs, are the first cells upregulating IIR cytokines in the dLN. Preventing MHC class IIhi DC migration or depletion of LCs, but not DP-DC deficiency, suppresses the IIR in the dLN and results in high viral lethality. Therefore, LCs are the architects of an early IIR in the dLN that is critical for optimal resistance to a disseminating viral infection.

Resistance to ectromelia virus infection requires cGAS in bone marrow-derived cells which can be bypassed with cGAMP therapy.

Cells sensing infection produce Type I interferons (IFN-I) to stimulate Interferon Stimulated Genes (ISGs) that confer resistance to viruses. During lympho-hematogenous spread of the mouse pathogen ectromelia virus (ECTV), the adaptor STING and the transcription factor IRF7 are required for IFN-I and ISG induction and resistance to ECTV. However, it is unknown which cells sense ECTV and which pathogen recognition receptor (PRR) upstream of STING is required for IFN-I and ISG induction. We found that cyclic-GMP-AMP (cGAMP) synthase (cGAS), a DNA-sensing PRR, is required in bone marrow-derived (BMD) but not in other cells for IFN-I and ISG induction and for resistance to lethal mousepox. Also, local administration of cGAMP, the product of cGAS that activates STING, rescues cGAS but not IRF7 or IFN-I receptor deficient mice from mousepox. Thus, sensing of infection by BMD cells via cGAS and IRF7 is critical for resistance to a lethal viral disease in a natural host.